Right off the Southeastern coast of Africa, Madagascar is a beautiful country that has many different ecoregion that support an abundance of diverse, endemic species of flora and fauna. In this blog, we explore the tropical moist forests of Eastern Madagascar, benefits this region provides humans, how humans have impacted the area, and future prospects of this biodiversity hotspot.
Historical:
Madagascar is an island
southeast off of the coast of Africa, but it was not always located there. It
was once part of the ancient super continent of Pangea before Earth’s plate tectonics caused the continental
drift. Madagascar was connected to both Africa and India, but broke away from
Africa around 160 million years ago and from India about 80 million years ago (wildmadagascar.org). The fact that Madagascar
broke off into its own island created the unique possibility to have a large
biodiversity hotspot on the eastern coast because there was no human
interaction and it’s new isolated ecosystem bred many endemic species that
cannot be found anywhere else on Earth. The continental shift that it went
through as it floated away from the larger continents to be on its own also
helped create its diverse ecosystem because it has a dry side and a wet side
with many biomes created by the heterogeneity of precipitation; if Madagascar
had stayed connected to either Africa or India, its ecosystem would be much
different, with not even close to as many endemic species that flourished in
their isolation.
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| Map of Pangea
http://eatrio.net/pangea-maps
|
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| Forest loss in Madagascar from before human colonization to 1985 http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/enhancement_chapters/conservation.html |
Madagascar was left to thrive in both its diverse plant and animal species until about 2000 years ago when humans first traveled to and settled upon Madagascar’s land, and since then, humans have done what they have always done to nature on Earth, in destroying much of the natural ecosystems and over hunting species to the brink and into extinction. Long ago, much of Madagascar was covered in forests that have all but disappeared to this day. Although it remains a very diverse and thriving ecosystem to this day, the destruction, hunting, and deforestation of humans affected Madagascar immensely because its isolation of being an island did not prepare its species for human interaction in their evolution (mhhe.com). Madagascar has already lost almost all of its tremendous forest cover and many of its endemic species due to human presence and it may continue to the point of extinction for many more threatened species if nothing is done to improve the environmental status there.
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| What Madagascar probably looked like historically http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/project/projects_in_depth/conservation_program2/summary/ |
Deforestation in Madagascar
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~tlbolton/world_forestry/
|
Benefits:
The tropical moist forests in eastern Madagascar provide an
abundance of benefits for humans. Many of the forests in this region are
cleared for farmland (WWF). A significant portion of the land is also reserved
exclusively for commercial logging (WWF). Other portions of the land are used for
(non-sustainable) agriculture and small-scale mining (WWF). An interesting feature of
Madagascar is that it broke off from the continental mass of Africa, allowing
the organisms on the island to evolve independently. This also allowed the
region diversify immensely. The biodiversity found in the tropical moist
broadleaf forests is unparalleled to other regions with similar terrain. As a
result, tourism has become the backbone of the economy in Madagascar. In turn,
this has produced an array of intangible benefits for the residents of
Madagascar such as an increase in jobs and income opportunities.
Human Impact:
Sadly, Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, with 75.3% living below the poverty line ($1.25/day) (The World Bank). According to recent World Bank data from 2013, Madagascar has a population of around 22.92 million people that continues to increase at a 3% growth rate. Because of how many people there are and the poverty that exists, the people have turned to deforestation to create fields to grow crops that will help them survive. There is widespread use of slash-and-burn agriculture, also known as "tavy," that make land available for short-term subsistence farming (Butler). With slash-and-agriculture, natural vegetation is converted into rice fields by cutting down and burning an acre of forest at a time then planting rice (Butler). The field is able to produce rice for about one to two years, then left for 4-6 years, when the process repeats. Only two to three cycles of this production and halting of production take place because by then, the soil does not hold enough nutrients so alien grasses and scrub vegetation take over the land (Butler). Another contributing factor to deforestation is logging of ebony and rosewood, which have a high value to them (Butler). While logging doesn't necessarily lead to deforestation, it leads to the degradation of forests, where it is easier for the land to be cleared in the future for subsistence farming, which in turn leads to deforestation. Myers suggests that Madagascar has kept less than 10% of its original vegetation while Harper et al. suggest that Madagascar's total forest land area has decreased by 40% and rainforest land area has decreased by 47.5%. Even though, the exact percentage loss of forest land area is disputed, there is agreement that there has been a decline in forest land area due to deforestation (Clark).
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| Loss of Forest Cover in Eastern Madagascar Over Time http://www.geocases1.co.uk/printable/Deforestation%20of%20TRF%20a%20case%20study%20of%20Madagascar.htm |
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| Remaining Primary Vegetation in Madagascar http://www.geocases1.co.uk/printable/Deforestation%20of%20TRF%20a%20case%20study%20of%20Madagascar.htm |
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| "Tavy" to produce rice fields in Madagascar http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0927-megatransect_of_madagascar.html |
Land-clearing and deforestation have a few impacts in return. With less trees, less carbon dioxide is being fixed in the atmosphere and agricultural fires also result from land clearing. Rhett mentions that approximately one-third of the country experiences agricultural fires yearly from land clearing. Deforestation also leads to the destruction of habitats, which in turn leave many species without homes and at risk for survival. Lastly, there is a greater amount of soil erosion because there are no longer tree roots anchoring the soil so during rainfall, there are more instances of landslides on sloped land areas.
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| Agricultural Fire in Madagascar http://www.wildmadagascar.org/media/madagascar3.html |
Another human impact is overexploitation of the natural fauna. The tropical rainforests of Madagascar is a diversity hotspot, with 51% endemism in bird species, >90% endemism in mammal and reptile species, and 99% endemism in amphibian species (Hawkins & Goodman, Garbutt, Raxworthy, Glaw & Vences, as cited by Harper et al.) These rare species are especially attractive to the international pet trade due to their high value. Relating back to the country's state of poverty, trading such rare species can bring in great money, which is why this issue is so rampant (Butler). Fishing is also unregulated in Madagascar so sharks, sea cucumbers, and lobsters are harvested unsustainably and other countries are able to fish around the Madagascar coast as well (Butler).
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| Giant Leaf-Tailed Gecko from Eastern Madagascar http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2008/04/10_madagascar.shtml |
The last major human impact on Madagascar is the introduction of alien species. This in turn removes endemic species, which takes away from the biodiversity of the system and also shifts the system out of equilibrium. For example, in rivers and lakes, tilapia, which is a fish used primarily as a food source, was introduced and displaced the native cichlids (Butler). This allows not only tilapia to overrun these bodies of water but what cichlids used to prey on will also overrun the bodies of water since their predator is no longer in the system. However, to the people of Madagascar, this issue is not of great importance because they now have another method of sustenance. This all goes back to the unfortunate state of poverty that the country is in.
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| Tilapia in a pond in Madagascar http://www.wildmadagascar.org/kids/16-wildlife-fish.html |
Potential areas for major human impact include mineral extraction and plantation agriculture (Butler).
Protected Areas:
As noted in the above section, the benefits that this ecosystem provides also
contribute to its own destruction. Excessive deforestation for timber and
farmland, on behalf of humans, has resulted in only ten percent of the original
forests to remain in tact. It is important to protect these forests because
they are high in biodiversity and fresh water resources. Local communities and
the government are now working with NGOs (such as WWF) to secure the protection
of a portion of these forests. As a result, a preliminary list of 20 different
locations has been created (WWF Global). Many of these areas are protected through national
parks such as the, one found in Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Makira Natural Park, and Masoala National Park.
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| A stream that runs through Makira Natural Park http://www.coderedd.org/redd-project/wildlife-conservation-society-makira-madagascar/#.VH7RnodjrS6 |
In these national parks (in particular Makira Natural Park), many different species of lemurs are protected along with other animals like the serpent eagle and the fossa. The Wildlife Conservation Society also aims to keep the diversity of these tropical forest system intact and continues to keep these national parks large and abundant with biodiversity. These parks also aim to engage the population, in conjunction with farmers, in forest resource management (Code REDD).
However, although there are great efforts to protect the tropical
moist broadleaf forests of Madagascar, the protected areas along with the
island as a whole, are in endangered and in critical condition. These forests
are very fragile and the overexploitation of them has not allowed the forests
to regenerate their resources successfully. It is not until humans decrease
their direct interaction with these forests and turn to sustainable uses of
natural resources and agriculture, can the status of these protected areas
truly improve.
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| Black and white ruffed lemur endemic to Madagascar http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2008/04/10_madagascar.shtml |
Future Prospects:
If current trends continue, then the future of
Madagascar is bleak. The tropical wetlands of the east have been degraded and
largely destroyed, largely due to agricultural practices of the locals. Unsustainable
farming has caused fragmentation of the forest and extreme soil erosion, while
logging for precious lumber and firewood has taken a major toll on the plant
life (geocases1.co.uk). Currently, approximately a third of the island is lost to fire and
one percent of the remaining forests are leveled annually (wildmadagascar.org). Due to the
nature of tropical soil, which is thin and nutrient-poor, it is unlikely that cleared
forests will grow back. When trees are cut, the soil is exposed to heavy
rainfall, which washes it away, and to direct sunlight, which can destroy the
microorganisms living in the soil (wildmadagascar.org). Without soil, new plants cannot grow,
and the depleted land will remain barren, unproductive, and exposed.
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| Agricultural Fire in Madagascar http://travel.mongabay.com/madagascar/images/madagascar_6978.html |
Population growth, which is expected to continue
increasing, is a major concern, especially since the country lacks and economic
infrastructure (Wilson). With a predominately rural population, local people
live directly off the land, but their practices are dangerous for the
environment. They largely rely on subsistence agriculture, which poses a major
threat to the rain forests, and they also overexploit the island’s fauna
through hunting and the international pet trade (wildmadagascar.org). As the
population increases, the economy will struggle to keep up, and more people will
have to rely on exploiting the land in order to survive. However, in recent
years, contraceptive use has increased considerably, and many family planning
programs have been established in an effort to reduce family size (Wilson).
These problems have expounded due to the military
coup in 2009, in which President Ravalomanana was overthrown. The new
government has been "failing to uphold commitments to protect
national forests” and has counteracted many of the previous government’s
measures to protect the environment (Bolton). For example, illegal logging in
protected areas has increased dramatically, which is posing a major problem in
terms of conservation (Bolton). Not only is this threatening biodiversity, but,
if the forests continue to disappear, then the possibility of establishing a
tourist-based economy will become nonexistent. The local people will have to
return to environmentally degrading practices, including slash and burn
agriculture, simply to produce enough food for basic survival. In the future,
the forest will most likely be degraded further due to poor government
protection, poor forest maintenance, damaging agricultural practices, and the
rapidly increasing population. While certain programs have been established,
including family planning and ecotourism, without major governmental changes
the tropical rain forests of Madagascar may never be able to recover. Local
people must learn to live sustainably without sacrificing their livelihood,
which poses a difficult, but not insurmountable, problem. With proper funding,
planning, and support, Madagascar could save its forests.
What Can Be Done:
In order to improve the relationship between people
and the environment in Madagascar, conservationists must focus on two major
areas: protecting the forests and protecting the people, and the most effective
measures will do both simultaneously. In order to conserve forests, it is
important to expand protected areas while also increasing surveillance and
patrol of the park (wildmadagascar.org). This can only be achieved if the local people will
benefit from the establishment and success of protected areas. If people can
successfully build an economy based on a healthy forest, then they are more
likely to protect it and prevent its destruction.
Education is a necessary aspect of protecting the
forest. By establishing research centers in Madagascar, people can increase
their intellectual capital and their knowledge of the unique environment that
surrounds them. With increased research, people can discover how to control and
maintain resources, decrease soil erosion, and increase agricultural yields
(wildmadagascar.org). Sustainable use of the land is critical, especially since many people
will still have to rely on tradition uses of the land, including agriculture
and cattle ranching. In addition to ecological research, education should also
include teaching people about family planning and public health. With improved
health and a decreased infant mortality rate, then there is less stress to have
many children, and the resulting smaller families will decrease the demand for
natural resources (Wilson). However, these measures depend on the support and
funding of the government, so it is critical to achieve political stability in
Madagascar to protect the rainforests.
Economics lie at the heart of the problem. It is
important to protect people’s livelihoods while also helping the environment,
so it is necessary to compensate displaced people (wildmadagascar.org). If the establishment
of protected areas forces people to abandon their homes, which is likely as
more and more land is set aside, the government should provide these people
with either monetary compensation through direct cash or educational compensation
through training in improved agricultural processes. Also, the promotion of
ecotourism will encourage those who depend on this industry to save the
forests. Local communities will protect ecosystems that are financially
beneficial to them, and will thus limit clear-cutting, slashing and burning,
and other poor agricultural practices. Also, entrepreneurship and better
banking can help local people take control of their economy, and can reduce the
need for handouts (wildmadagascar.org). If people can learn to prosper without clearing
forests, this will simultaneously reduce poverty and promote the health of this
unique tropical rainforest.
References:
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| Yellow and Red Endemic Species of Chameleon in Madagascar http://www.mobot.org/mobot/madagascar/image.asp?relation=b2 |
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